Livingston G, Huntley J, Liu KY et al (2024) Dementia prevention, intervention, and care: 2024 report of the Lancet standing Commission. Lancet 404:572–628. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(24)01296-0

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Heneka MT, van der Flier WM, Jessen F et al (2025) Neuroinflammation in Alzheimer disease. Nat Rev Immunol 25:321–352. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41577-024-01104-7

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

da Silva AAF, Fiadeiro MB, Bernardino LI et al (2024) Lipopolysaccharide-induced animal models for neuroinflammation - an overview. J Neuroimmunol 387:578273. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroim.2023.578273

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Long J, Li X, Yao C et al (2024) The role of ZC3H12D-regulated TLR4-NF-κB pathway in LPS-induced pro-inflammatory microglial activation. Neurosci Lett 832:137800. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2024.137800

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Stone WJ, Pair FS, Ekkatine R et al (2025) 14-3-3 Proteins negatively regulate microglial activation via inhibition of the NF-κB pathway. J Neurochem 169:e70228. https://doi.org/10.1111/jnc.70228

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Yang G, Xu X, Gao W et al (2025) Microglia-orchestrated neuroinflammation and synaptic remodeling: roles of pro-inflammatory cytokines and receptors in neurodegeneration. Front Cell Neurosci 19:1700692. https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2025.1700692

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Öz M, Erdal H (2024) A TNF-α inhibitor abolishes sepsis-induced cognitive impairment in mice by modulating acetylcholine and nitric oxide homeostasis, BDNF release, and neuroinflammation. Behav Brain Res 466:114995. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2024.114995

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Izumi Y, O’Dell KA, Cashikar AG et al (2024) Neurosteroids mediate and modulate the effects of pro-inflammatory stimulation and toll-like receptors on hippocampal plasticity and learning. PLoS One 19:e0304481. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0304481

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Zhao L, Yin R, Zhang K et al (2025) Cang-Ai volatile oil mitigates lipopolysaccharide-induced depressive-like behaviour in mice by modulating the microglial BDNF/CREB signaling pathway. Mol Neurobiol 63:188. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12035-025-05325-2

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Zent KH, Dell’Acqua ML (2025) Synapse-to-nucleus ERK→CREB transcriptional signaling requires dendrite-to-soma Ca2+ propagation mediated by L-type voltage-gated Ca2+ channels. J Neurosci 45:e1216242024. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1216-24.2024

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Mani V, Almatrafi MA (2026) Clozapine mitigates lipopolysaccharide-induced cognitive dysfunction by modulating cholinergic function, oxidative stress, and apoptotic signaling in rats. Life 16:315. https://doi.org/10.3390/life16020315

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Li W, Chen Q, Fu H (2025) The role of melatonin in affecting cognitive dysfunction in acute sleep deprivation mice through the nuclear factor kappaB pathway and oxidative stress. Transl Neurosci 16:20250379. https://doi.org/10.1515/tnsci-2025-0379

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Mani V, Arfeen M (2024) Betahistine’s neuroprotective actions against lipopolysaccharide-induced neurotoxicity: insights from experimental and computational studies. Brain Sci 14:876. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14090876

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Ishizaki Y, Shimizu S, Kusaka A et al (2025) Ameliorative effects of Kir4.1 channel inhibitors on lipopolysaccharide-induced cognitive impairment via BDNF/TrkB signaling pathway. J Pharmacol Sci 159:64–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jphs.2025.07.002

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Gurram PC, Manandhar S, Satarker S et al (2025) Substance P mitigates lipopolysaccharide induced cognitive impairment in rats in a dose dependent manner. Neuropeptides 113:102551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.npep.2025.102551

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Lee K-S, Yoon S-H, Hwang I et al (2024) Hyperglycemia enhances brain susceptibility to lipopolysaccharide-induced neuroinflammation via astrocyte reprogramming. J Neuroinflammation 21:137. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12974-024-03136-1

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Fei X, Chen L, Gao J et al (2024) P53 lysine-lactylated modification contributes to lipopolysaccharide-induced proinflammatory activation in BV2 cell under hypoxic conditions. Neurochem Int 178:105794. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuint.2024.105794

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Abdel Rasheed NO, Shiha NA, Mohamed SS, Ibrahim WW (2023) SIRT1/PARP-1/NLRP3 cascade as a potential target for niacin neuroprotective effect in lipopolysaccharide-induced depressive-like behavior in mice. Int Immunopharmacol 123:110720. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intimp.2023.110720

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Fu Y, Zhang H, Zhu X et al (2025) Chronic lipopolysaccharide exposure promotes cognitive impairments by activating TRPC6-AIM2 inflammasome signaling and the regulation of ginsenoside Rg1 in Trpc6-/- mice. Behav Brain Funct BBF 21:23. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12993-025-00290-1

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Huang S, Lu Y, Fang W et al (2025) Neurodegenerative diseases and neuroinflammation-induced apoptosis. Open Life Sci 20:20221051. https://doi.org/10.1515/biol-2022-1051

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Taghizadeh Ghassab F, Shamlou Mahmoudi F, Taheri Tinjani R et al (2024) Probiotics and the microbiota-gut-brain axis in neurodegeneration: beneficial effects and mechanistic insights. Life Sci 350:122748. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2024.122748

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Zhao S, Fu D, Lin Y et al (2025) The role of the microbiome on immune homeostasis of the host nervous system. Front Immunol 16:1609960. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2025.1609960

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Parra I, Martínez I, Vásquez-Celaya L et al (2023) Neuroprotective and immunomodulatory effects of probiotics in a rat model of Parkinson’s disease. Neurotox Res 41:187–200. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12640-022-00627-y

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Hamid M, Zahid S (2023) Ameliorative effects of probiotics in AlCl3-induced mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 107:5803–5812. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-023-12686-y

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Heydari R, Khosravifar M, Abiri S et al (2025) A domestic strain of Lactobacillus rhamnosus attenuates cognitive deficit and pro-inflammatory cytokine expression in an animal model of Alzheimer’s disease. Behav Brain Res 476:115277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2024.115277

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Zolfaghari SI, Rabbani Khorasgani M, Noorbakhshnia M (2021) The effects of lactobacilli (L. rhamnosus, L. reuteri, L. Plantarum) on LPS-induced memory impairment and changes in CaMKII-α and TNF-α genes expression in the hippocampus of rat. Physiol Behav 229:113224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2020.113224

Article  PubMed  CAS