Abdel-Ghaffar HS, Kamal SM, El Sherif FA, Mohamed SA (2018) Comparison of nebulised dexmedetomidine, ketamine, or midazolam for premedication in preschool children undergoing bone marrow biopsy. Br J Anaesth 121:445–452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bja.2018.03.039

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Abdulatif M, Ahmed A, Mukhtar A, Badawy S (2013) The effect of magnesium sulphate infusion on the incidence and severity of emergence agitation in children undergoing adenotonsillectomy using sevoflurane anaesthesia. Anaesthesia 68:1045–1052. https://doi.org/10.1111/anae.12380

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Amrock LG, Starner ML, Murphy KL, Baxter MG (2015) Long-term effects of single or multiple neonatal sevoflurane exposures on rat hippocampal ultrastructure. Anesthesiology 122:87–95. https://doi.org/10.1097/ALN.0000000000000477

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Andropoulos DB (2023) Neuroprotective strategies in anesthesia-induced neurotoxicity. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol 37:52–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpa.2022.11.005

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Aono J, Ueda W, Mamiya K, Takimoto E, Manabe M (1997) Greater incidence of delirium during recovery from sevoflurane anesthesia in preschool boys. Anesthesiology 87:1298–1300. https://doi.org/10.1097/00000542-199712000-00006

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Apai C, Shah R, Tran K, Pandya Shah S (2021) Anesthesia and the developing brain: a review of sevoflurane-induced neurotoxicity in pediatric populations. Clin Ther 43:762–778. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinthera.2021.01.024

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Areias J, Sola C, Chastagnier Y, Pico J, Bouquier N, Dadure C, Perroy J, Szabo V (2023) Whole-brain characterization of apoptosis after sevoflurane anesthesia reveals neuronal cell death patterns in the mouse neonatal neocortex. Sci Rep 13:14763. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-41750-w

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Baserga M, DuPont TL, Ostrander B, Minton S, Sheffield M, Balch AH, Bahr TM, Watt KM (2021) Dexmedetomidine use in infants undergoing cooling due to neonatal encephalopathy (DICE trial): a randomized controlled trial: background, aims and study protocol. Front Pain Res (Lausanne) 2:770511. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpain.2021.770511

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bergh E, Buskmiller C, Johnson A (2021) The future of fetal surgery. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am 48:745–758. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ogc.2021.06.004

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Berry KP, Nedivi E (2017) Spine dynamics: are they all the same? Neuron 96:43–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2017.08.008

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Bleeser T, Basurto D, Russo F, Vergote S, Valenzuela I, den Van Broucke S, Kunpalin Y, Joyeux L, der Van Veeken L, Vally JC, Emam D, van der Merwe J, de Van Vel M, Devroe S, Deprest J, Rex S (2023) Effects of cumulative duration of repeated anaesthesia exposure on foetal brain development in the ovine model. J Clin Anesth 85:111050. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinane.2022.111050

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bonhomme V, Boveroux P, Brichant JF, Laureys S, Boly M (2012) Neural correlates of consciousness during general anesthesia using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Arch Ital Biol 150:155–163. https://doi.org/10.4449/aib.v150i2.1242

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Breschan C, Platzer M, Jost R, Stettner H, Likar R (2007) Midazolam does not reduce emergence delirium after Sevoflurane anesthesia in children. Paediatr Anaesth 17:347–352. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-9592.2006.02101.x

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Briner A, De Roo M, Dayer A, Muller D, Habre W, Vutskits L (2010) Volatile anesthetics rapidly increase dendritic spine density in the rat medial prefrontal cortex during synaptogenesis. Anesthesiology 112:546–556. https://doi.org/10.1097/ALN.0b013e3181cd7942

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cao T, Jiang S, Wang X, Huang P, Zhou L, Di L, Han S, Huang L (2025) Rosiglitazone promotes oligodendrocyte development and Myelin formation of repeated neonatal Sevoflurane exposure via PPARgamma signaling. Mol Neurobiol 62:2348–2361. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12035-024-04413-z

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cesarovic N, Nicholls F, Rettich A, Kronen P, Hassig M, Jirkof P, Arras M (2010) Isoflurane and Sevoflurane provide equally effective anaesthesia in laboratory mice. Lab Anim 44:329–336. https://doi.org/10.1258/la.2010.009085

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Chai D, Cheng Y, Sun Y, Yan J, Hu R, Zhang L, Jiang H (2019) Multiple Sevoflurane exposures during pregnancy inhibit neuronal migration by upregulating prostaglandin D2 synthase. Int J Dev Neurosci 78:77–82. https://doi.org/10.18632/aging.103041

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Chai D, Yan J, Li C, Sun Y, Jiang H (2020) Sevoflurane inhibits neuronal migration and axon growth in the developing mouse cerebral cortex. Aging 12:6436–6455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2019.09.001

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Chaki T, Horiguchi Y, Tachibana S, Sato S, Hirahata T, Nishihara N, Kii N, Yoshikawa Y, Hayamizu K, Yamakage M (2025) Gut microbiota influences developmental anesthetic neurotoxicity in neonatal rats. Anesth Analg. https://doi.org/10.1213/ANE.0000000000007410

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Chamadia S, Hobbs L, Marota S, Ibala R, Hahm E, Gitlin J, Mekonnen J, Ethridge B, Colon KM, Sheppard KS, Manoach DS, DiBiasio A, Nguyen S, Pedemonte JC, Akeju O (2020) Oral Dexmedetomidine promotes non-rapid eye movement stage 2 sleep in humans. Anesthesiology 133:1234–1243. https://doi.org/10.1097/ALN.0000000000003567

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Chang SJ, Chen JY, Hsu CK, Chuang FC, Yang SS (2016) The incidence of inguinal hernia and associated risk factors of incarceration in pediatric inguinal hernia: a nation-wide longitudinal population-based study. Hernia 20:559–563. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10029-015-1450-x

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Che J, Wu Y, Dong J, Jiang X, Yang L, Chen Y, Zhang J (2025) Myelination trajectory and microglial dynamics following repeated sevoflurane exposure in developing brain. Glia. https://doi.org/10.1002/glia.70000

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Chen JY, Jia JE, Liu TJ, Qin MJ, Li WX (2013) Comparison of the effects of dexmedetomidine, ketamine, and placebo on emergence agitation after strabismus surgery in children. Can J Anaesth 60:385–392. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12630-013-9886-x

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Chen JL, Chang CH, Tsai JW (2019) Gli2 rescues delays in brain development induced by Kif3a dysfunction. Cereb Cortex 29:751–764. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhx356

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Chen Q, Chu W, Sheng R, Song S, Yang J, Ji F, Jin X (2021) Maternal anesthesia with Sevoflurane during the mid-gestation induces social interaction deficits in offspring C57BL/6 mice. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 553:65–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2021.03.063

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Chen R, Dou XK, Dai MS, Sun Y, Sun SJ, Wu Y (2022) The role of Dexmedetomidine in immune tissue and inflammatory diseases: a narrative review. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 26:8030–8038. https://doi.org/10.26355/eurrev_202211_30157

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Chidambaram SB, Rathipriya AG, Bolla SR, Bhat A, Ray B, Mahalakshmi AM, Manivasagam T, Thenmozhi AJ, Essa MM, Guillemin GJ, Chandra R, Sakharkar MK (2019) Dendritic spines: revisiting the physiological role. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 92:161–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2019.01.005

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Chung W, Yoon S, Shin YS (2017a) Multiple exposures of sevoflurane during pregnancy induces memory impairment in young female offspring mice. Korean J Anesthesiol 70:642–647. https://doi.org/10.4097/kjae.2017.70.6.642

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Chung W, Ryu MJ, Heo JY, Lee S, Yoon S, Park H, Park S, Kim Y, Kim YH, Yoon SH, Shin YS, Lee WH, Ju X, Kweon GR, Ko Y (2017b) Sevoflurane exposure during the critical period affects synaptic transmission and mitochondrial respiration but not long-term behavior in mice. Anesthesiology 126:288–299. https://doi.org/10.1097/ALN.0000000000001470

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cole JW, Murray DJ, McAllister JD, Hirshberg GE (2002) Emergence behaviour in children: defining the incidence of excitement and agitation following anaesthesia. Paediatr Anaesth 12:442–447. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1460-9592.2002.00868.x

Article  PubMed