Busetto L, Dicker D, Frühbeck G, Halford JCG, Sbraccia P, Yumuk V, Goossens GH. A new framework for the diagnosis, staging and management of obesity in adults. Nat Med. 2024;30(9):2395–9. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-024-03095-3.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Rubino F, Cummings DE, Eckel RH, Cohen RV, Wilding JPH, Brown WA, Stanford FC, Batterham RL, Farooqi IS, Farpour-Lambert NJ, le Roux CW, Sattar N, Baur LA, Morrison KM, Misra A, Kadowaki T, Tham KW, Sumithran P, Garvey WT, Kirwan JP, Fernández-Real JM, Corkey BE, Toplak H, Kokkinos A, Kushner RF, Branca F, Valabhji J, Blüher M, Bornstein SR, Grill HJ, Ravussin E, Gregg E, Al Busaidi NB, Alfaris NF, Al Ozairi E, Carlsson LMS, Clément K, Després JP, Dixon JB, Galea G, Kaplan LM, Laferrère B, Laville M, Lim S, Luna Fuentes JR, Mooney VM, Nadglowski J Jr, Urudinachi A, Olszanecka-Glinianowicz M, Pan A, Pattou F, Schauer PR, Tschöp MH, van der Merwe MT, Vettor R, Mingrone G. Definition and diagnostic criteria of clinical obesity. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2025, 13(3), 221 – 62, doi: 10.1016/S2213-8587(24)00316-4. Erratum in: Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2025, 13(3), e6. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(25)00006-3

Iacobucci G. Define obesity as clinical or pre-clinical for more accurate diagnosis, says global commission. BMJ. 2025;388:r78. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.r78.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Blüher M. An overview of obesity-related complications: the epidemiological evidence linking body weight and other markers of obesity to adverse health outcomes. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2025;27(2):3–19. https://doi.org/10.1111/dom.16263.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Leitzmann MF, Stein MJ, Baurecht H, Freisling H. Excess adiposity and cancer: evaluating a preclinical-clinical obesity framework for risk stratification. EClinicalMedicine. 2025;83:103247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2025.103247.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Jeong SM, Lee DH, Rezende LFM, Giovannucci EL. Different correlation of body mass index with body fatness and obesity-related biomarker according to age, sex and race-ethnicity. Sci Rep. 2023;13(1):3472. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-30527-w.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kivimäki M, Strandberg T, Pentti J, Nyberg ST, Frank P, Jokela M, Ervasti J, Suominen SB, Vahtera J, Sipilä PN, Lindbohm JV, Ferrie JE. Body-mass index and risk of obesity-related complex multimorbidity: an observational multicohort study. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2022;10(4):253–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(22)00033-X.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Flegal KM, Shepherd JA, Looker AC, Graubard BI, Borrud LG, Ogden CL, Harris TB, Everhart JE, Schenker N. Comparisons of percentage body fat, body mass index, waist circumference, and waist-stature ratio in adults. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009;89(2):500–8. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.2008.26847.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Potter AW, Chin GC, Looney DP, Friedl KE. Defining overweight and obesity by percent body fat instead of body mass index. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2025;110(4):e1103–7. https://doi.org/10.1210/clinem/dgae341.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Mainous AG 3rd, Yin L, Wu V, Sharma P, Jenkins BM, Saguil AA, et al. Body mass index vs body fat percentage as a predictor of mortality in adults aged 20–49 years. Ann Fam Med. 2025;23(4):337–43. https://doi.org/10.1370/afm.240330.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Bennett JP, Lim S. The critical role of body composition assessment in advancing research and clinical health risk assessment across the lifespan. J Obes Metab Syndr. 2025;34(2):120–37. https://doi.org/10.7570/jomes25010.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Murdock DJ, Wu N, Grimsby JS, Calle RA, Donahue S, Glass DJ, et al. The prevalence of low muscle mass associated with obesity in the USA. Skelet Muscle. 2022;12(1):26. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13395-022-00309-5.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kirk B, Cawthon PM, Arai H, Ávila-Funes JA, Barazzoni R, Bhasin S, et al. The conceptual definition of sarcopenia: Delphi consensus from the Global Leadership Initiative in Sarcopenia (GLIS). Age Ageing. 2024;53(3):afae052. https://doi.org/10.1093/ageing/afae052.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Khor EQ, Lim JP, Tay L, Yeo A, Yew S, Ding YY, et al. Obesity definitions in sarcopenic obesity: differences in prevalence, agreement and association with muscle function. J Frailty Aging. 2020;9(1):37–43. https://doi.org/10.14283/jfa.2019.28.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Luo Y, Wang Y, Tang S, Xu L, Zhao X, Han M, et al. Prevalence of sarcopenic obesity in the older non-hospitalized population: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Geriatr. 2024;24(1):357. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-024-04952-z.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Donini LM, Busetto L, Bischoff SC, Cederholm T, Ballesteros-Pomar MD, Batsis JA, et al. Definition and diagnostic criteria for sarcopenic obesity: ESPEN and EASO consensus statement. Obes Facts. 2022;15(3):321–35. https://doi.org/10.1159/000521241.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

González Arnáiz E, Ariadel Cobo D, Estébanez B, Barajas Galindo D, Pintor de la Maza B, Urioste Fondo A, et al. Prevalence of sarcopenic obesity according to different diagnostic methods and cut-off points in candidates for bariatric surgery. Clin Nutr. 2024;43(5):1087–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2024.03.015.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Colleluori G, Villareal DT. Aging, obesity, sarcopenia and the effect of diet and exercise intervention. Exp Gerontol. 2021;155:111561. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exger.2021.111561.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Pekař M, Pekařová A, Bužga M, Holéczy P, Soltes M. The risk of sarcopenia 24 months after bariatric surgery - assessment by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA): a prospective study. Wideochir Inne Tech Maloinwazyjne. 2020;15(4):583–7. https://doi.org/10.5114/wiitm.2020.93463.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Look M, Dunn JP, Kushner RF, Cao D, Harris C, Gibble TH, Stefanski A, Griffin R. (2025) Body composition changes during weight reduction with tirzepatide in the SURMOUNT-1 study of adults with obesity or overweight. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2025, 27(5), 2720-9, 10.1111/dom.16275; Epub 2025 Feb 25. Erratum in: Diabetes Obes Metab 27(11):6823. https://doi.org/10.1111/dom.70050

Consitt LA, Clark BC. The Vicious Cycle of Myostatin Signaling in Sarcopenic Obesity: Myostatin Role in Skeletal Muscle Growth, Insulin Signaling and Implications for Clinical Trials. J Frailty Aging. 2018;7(1):21–7. https://doi.org/10.14283/jfa.2017.33.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Cesanelli L, Minderis P, Fokin A, Ratkevicius A, Satkunskiene D, Degens H. Myostatin in Obesity: A Molecular Link Between Metabolic Dysfunction and Musculotendinous Remodeling. Int J Mol Sci. 2026;27(2):967. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms27020967.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Volpi E, Nazemi R, Fujita S. Muscle tissue changes with aging. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2004;7(4):405–10. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.mco.0000134362.76653.b2.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Melton LJ 3rd, Khosla S, Crowson CS, O’Connor MK, O’Fallon WM, Riggs BL. Epidemiology of sarcopenia. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2000;48(6):625–30.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Larsson L, Degens H, Li M, Salviati L, Lee YI, Thompson W, Kirkland JL, Sandri M. Sarcopenia: Aging-Related Loss of Muscle Mass and Function. Physiol Rev. 2019;99(1):427–511. https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00061.2017.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Wiedmer P, Jung T, Castro JP, Pomatto LCD, Sun PY, Davies KJA, et al. Sarcopenia - Molecular mechanisms and open questions. Ageing Res Rev. 2021;65:101200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arr.2020.101200.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Moinard C, Fontaine E. Direct or indirect regulation of muscle protein synthesis by energy status? Clin Nutr. 2021;40(4):1893–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2020.07.015.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Park SS, Kwon ES, Kwon KS. Molecular mechanisms and therapeutic interventions in sarcopenia. Osteoporos Sarcopenia. 2017;3(3):117–22. https://doi.org/10.1016