Kaguelidou F, Holstiege J, Schink T, Bezemer I, Poluzzi E, Mazzaglia G, et al. Use of antipsychotics in children and adolescents: a picture from the ARITMO population-based European cohort study. Epidemiol Psychiatr Sci. 2020;29:e117. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2045796020000293.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Piovani D, Clavenna A, Bonati M. Prescription prevalence of psychotropic drugs in children and adolescents: an analysis of international data. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2019;75(10):1333–46. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00228-019-02711-3.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kalverdijk LJ, Bachmann CJ, Aagaard L, Burcu M, Glaeske G, Hoffmann F, et al. A multi-national comparison of antipsychotic drug use in children and adolescents, 2005–2012. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health. 2017;11(1):55. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-017-0192-1.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Radojčić MR, Pierce M, Hope H, Senior M, Taxiarchi VP, Trefan L, et al. Trends in antipsychotic prescribing to children and adolescents in England: cohort study using 2000-19 primary care data. Lancet Psychiatry. 2023;10(2):119–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(22)00404-7.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Vinogradova Y, Jack RH, Prasad V, Coupland C, Morriss R, Hollis C. Guidelines and practice on antipsychotics prescribing and physical health monitoring in children and young people: a cohort study using primary care data. BMJ Ment Health. 2025;28(1):e301287. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjment-2024-301287.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Zhaojian W, Meizhu J, Jun H, Shanshan G, Jiping H, Zhigang Z, et al. Trends and off-label utilization of antipsychotics in children and adolescents from 2016 to 2021 in China: a real-world study. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health. 2024;18(1):77. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-024-00766-4.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Dörks M, Bachmann CJ, Below M, Hoffmann F, Paschke LM, Scholle O. Trends in antipsychotic use among children and adolescents in Germany: a study using 2011–2020 nationwide outpatient claims data. Front Psychiatry. 2023;14:1264047. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1264047.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Barczyk ZA, Rucklidge JJ, Eggleston M, Mulder RT. Psychotropic medication prescription rates and trends for New Zealand children and adolescents 2008-2016. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2020;30(2):87–96. https://doi.org/10.1089/cap.2019.0032.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bushnell GA, Crystal S, Olfson M. Trends in antipsychotic medication use in young privately insured children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2021;60(7):877–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2020.09.023.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Chavez LJ, Kelleher KJ, Beck A, Clarke GN, Penfold RB. Trends over time in antipsychotic initiation at a large children’s health care system. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2021;31(5):381–6. https://doi.org/10.1089/cap.2020.0190.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Sohn M, Moga DC, Blumenschein K, Talbert J. National trends in off-label use of atypical antipsychotics in children and adolescents in the United States. Medicine (Baltimore). 2016;95(23):e3784. https://doi.org/10.1097/md.0000000000003784.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Matone M, Localio R, Huang Y-S, dosReis S, Feudtner C, Rubin D. The relationship between mental health diagnosis and treatment with second-generation antipsychotics over time: a national study of U.S. Medicaid-enrolled children. Health Serv Res. 2012;47(5):1836–60. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6773.2012.01461.x.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Verdoux H. Antipsychotic off-label use in the 21st century: an enduring public health concern. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2025;27(1):1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/19585969.2025.2449833.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Hoekstra PJ, Dietrich A. First do no harm: use off-label antipsychotic medication in children and adolescents with great caution. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2022;31(1):1–3. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-022-01950-7.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Correll CU, Blader JC. Antipsychotic use in youth without psychosis: a double-edged sword. JAMA Psychiat. 2015;72(9):859–60. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2015.0632.

Article  Google Scholar 

Solmi M, Fornaro M, Ostinelli EG, Zangani C, Croatto G, Monaco F, et al. Safety of 80 antidepressants, antipsychotics, anti-attention-deficit/hyperactivity medications and mood stabilisers in children and adolescents with psychiatric disorders: a large scale systematic meta-review of 78 adverse effects. World Psychiatry. 2020;19(2):214–32. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20765.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Minjon L, van den Ban E, de Jong E, Souverein PC, Egberts TCG, Heerdink ER. Reported adverse drug reactions in children and adolescents treated with antipsychotics. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2019;29(2):124–32. https://doi.org/10.1089/cap.2018.0139.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Dinnissen M, Dietrich A, van der Molen JH, Verhallen AM, Buiteveld Y, Jongejan S, et al. Prescribing antipsychotics in child and adolescent psychiatry: guideline adherence. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2020;29(12):1717–27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-020-01488-6.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Correll CU. Assessing and maximizing the safety and tolerability of antipsychotics used in the treatment of children and adolescents. J Clin Psychiatry. 2008;69(Suppl. 4):26–36.

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Correll CU. Antipsychotic use in children and adolescents: minimizing adverse effects to maximize outcomes. Focus. 2008;6(3):368–78. https://doi.org/10.1176/foc.6.3.foc368.

Article  Google Scholar 

Ali T, Sisay M, Tariku M, Mekuria AN, Desalew A. Antipsychotic-induced extrapyramidal side effects: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. PLoS ONE. 2021;16(9):e0257129. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0257129.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Caroff SN, Campbell EC. Drug-induced extrapyramidal syndromes: implications for contemporary practice. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 2016;39(3):391–411. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psc.2016.04.003.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Divac N, Prostran M, Jakovcevski I, Cerovac N. Second-generation antipsychotics and extrapyramidal adverse effects. Biomed Res Int. 2014;2014:656370. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/656370.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Pierre JM. Extrapyramidal symptoms with atypical antipsychotics. Drug Saf. 2005;28(3):191–208. https://doi.org/10.2165/00002018-200528030-00002.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Tandon R, Jibson MD. Extrapyramidal side effects of antipsychotic treatment: scope of problem and impact on outcome. Ann Clin Psychiatry. 2002;14(2):123–9. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1016811222688.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Miller DD, Caroff SN, Davis SM, Rosenheck RA, McEvoy JP, Saltz BL, et al. Extrapyramidal side-effects of antipsychotics in a randomised trial. Br J Psychiatry. 2008;193(4):279–88. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.108.050088.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Jones PB, Barnes TRE, Davies L, Dunn G, Lloyd H, Hayhurst KP, et al. Randomized controlled trial of the effect on quality of life of second- vs first-generation antipsychotic drugs in schizophrenia: cost utility of the latest antipsychotic drugs in schizophrenia study (CUtLASS 1). Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2006;63(10):1079–87.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Peluso MJ, Lewis SW, Barnes TR, Jones PB. Extrapyramidal motor side-effects of first- and second-generation antipsychotic drugs. Br J Psychiatry. 2012;200(5):387–92. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.111.101485.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Fischer-Barnicol D, Lanquillon S, Haen E, Zofel P, Koch HJ, Dose M, et al. Typical and atypical antipsychotics: the misleading dichotomy. Results from the Working Group ‘Drugs in Psychiatry’ (AGATE). Neuropsychobiology. 2008;57(1–2):80–7. https://doi.org/10.1159/000135641.